THE Persian Music Tradition

GLOSSARY OF TEMRS

RADIF

The repertory of Persian art music together with its traditional order of classification is called Radif. The Radif is fundamentally a repertory of melodies that have been collected by different people and added to the repertory at different times. It is made up of tradi- tional melodies, many of which are derived from popular and folk sources; their origins have been obscured with the passage of time.

The main intention of the creators of the Radif was to create an organized repertory for Persian music.

The Hafezan e Moosighi (Music Preservers) were many musicians that had a big role in transmitting and preserving the melodies from generation to generation.These melodies are not composed by specific musicians.

The position of each melody in the Radif is determined by its modal characteristics.

The repertory of Persian melodies was first organized into the Radif in the mid-nineteenth century. Even before this time, musicians certainly had their own memorized bodies of music, which they used both for teaching and performance purposes.

The oldest Radifs that we know about come from two masters of the Radif, Mirza Abdol- lah (1843-1914) and Agha Hossein Gholi (died 1913). These two brothers spent their whole life teaching their Radif with an incredible conviction and rigor, and educated the best musicians of the following generation. The students were expected to memorize the entire repertory.

The idea of Radif was formed in the 19th century during the Qajar dynasty. All the melodies and songs that have been transmitted orally and they were performed by musicians for centuries. Every melody had a name, when musicians posed the idea of Radif, these melodies or songs got the name Goosheh. So Radif (repertory) is the collection of many Goosheh (melodies).

The melodies of Radif have been transmitted throughout many centuries by different musicians. There are different versions of Radif. The difference in versions in Radif is related to the management of Goosheh of Radif by different musicians. Most of the Radif are similar, there is difference just in the details.

Thus, different people played the same melody (Goosheh) in different ways, and the masters selected from among the versions of a melody to create their Radif.

DASTGĀH (دستگاه)

A modal system in Persian music, representing a level of organization at which a certain number of melodic types (gūšas) are regrouped and ordered in relation to a dominant mode (māya). Each dastgāh takes its name from this dominant mode, which is always played in the introductory parts. For example, dastgāh-eČahārgāh comprises not only several gūšas belonging to the mode Čahārgāh but also gūšas in modes that are both closely (Zābol, Ḥeṣār) and distantly (Moḵālef) related, which are played before the conclusion (forūd) in the initial mode. The term dastgāh is thus somewhat ambiguous: “The expression dastgâh-e chahârgâh . . . means either the major unitary modal complex chahârgâh or a whole set of gushes traditionally performed with chahârgâh at their head as the principal modal nucleus” (Powers, p. 426). Theoretically Čahārgāh can be correctly labeled a dastgāh only to the extent that it is composite, that is, comprises a minimal number of varying modal elements; without these elements it must be considered either a maqām (as Ḵāleqī suggested, pp. 127-28) or a simple mode (māya).

According to some practicing musicians (personal communication), the etymology of the term dastgāh can be associated with the idea of “the position (gāh) of the hand (dast) [on the neck of the instrument],” that is, the scale, for a similar idea of position appears in the names of modes like Dogāh and Segāh. It is more appropriate to translate it as “system,” however, for the dastgāh is first and foremost a collection of discrete and heterogeneous elements organized into a hierarchy that is entirely coherent though nevertheless flexible

The defining features of the dastgāh are thus a certain modal variety subjected to a course of development (sayr) that is determined by the preestablished order of sequences, or gūšas. This order can, however, vary within certain limits, depending on the repertoire or the taste of the interpreter. This definition is equally applicable to the āvāz (q.v.), which is, however, less developed and can itself be included in a dastgāh (e.g., Bayāt-e Kord, which can be played separately or as part of dastgāh-e Šūr). The extended version of a dastgāh like Šūr may encompass as many as fifty gūšas (During, 1991), a dozen of which are the most important; an āvāz like Bayāt-e Kord, on the other hand, may include only about seven gūšas, of which three are essential. Other āvāzes, like Bayāt-e Eṣfahān in its extended versions (Maʿrūfī, s.v.), could theoretically also be labeled dastgāh.

The overall structure of a dastgāh consists of three main parts corresponding to blocs of gūšas: the introductory sequence (darāmad, q.v.) or sequences, which are developed in the fundamental mode (māya, maqām); the sections comprising modulations or transpositions; and the rapid return (forūd) to the initial mode. In general there is a gradual progression up the scale, while the return is more rapid, and the ambitus of the melodies is progressively expanded within each section (Nettl, pp. 21-22). In principle the interpreter is always free to determine the content of each dastgāh and to modify, up to a point, the order of the gūšas, but in practice certain dastgāhs (or āvāzes), like Šūr and Homāyūn, seem to permit greater liberty than do others, like Čahārgāh and Rāst-Panjgāh, which are more standardized (Nettl, pp. 105-06).

Although there are twelve dastgāhs and āvāzes, they represent only six or seven scales (During, 1984, p. 105; idem, 1991, passim), in Rūḥ-Allāh Ḵāleqī’s view only five (p. 127). In certain instances the features distinguishing dastgāhs are purely structural (pauses, īst; variable notes; concluding notes; etc.) and connected with motifs (conclusion, or forūd; introduction; etc.). Dastgāhs can also be distinguished by such other characteristics as the sequence of modulations, the diapason, or the dominant chord (e.g., in the lower register for the dastgāhs, in the upper register for the āvāzes). All these elements are involved in the definition of “mode” in the broad sense, particularly in eastern music (Powers, pp. 434, 437). Despite their differentiating features, the dastgāhs are by no means closed systems but share certain gūšas among them: For example, the gūša Jāmadarān is played with different adaptations in Bayāt-e Eṣfahān, Afšārī, Homāyūn, and Bayāt-e Tork (During, 1984, p. 142). In principle each dastgāh has an expressive coloration, an individual ethos (Joneydī, pp. 218-22), but it cannot always be characterized in a consistent manner. The definition thus remains more fluid and general because the ethos depends in large part on the interpretation. It is nevertheless agreed that Navā is rather serene and meditative, Čahārgāh martial, Māhūr cheerful or majestic, Šūr melancholy, and Homāyūn pathetic; the characters of the other dastgāhs are less settled.

Both the term dastgāh and the musical form itself are indigenous to Persian (and Azerī) music and were no doubt elaborated during the revival of traditional music in the 19th century. The term is found in an Azerī work of 1301/1884 (Safarova) and, in about 1287/1870, in an unpublished list of terms compiled by Malek-Manṣūrzāda in Baku. The older term that comes closest to it is āvāz (Ṣafī-al-Dīn Ormavī, 13th century), and, according to Ḵāleqī (p. 125), when these āvāzes were expanded they were called dastgāhs. The twelve were thus assembled: seven dastgāhs (Šūr, Segāh, Čahārgāh, Māhūr, Homāyūn, Navā, and Rāst-Panjgāh) and five āvāzes (Abū ʿAṭā, Bayāt-e Tork, Afšārī, Daštī, Bayāt-e Eṣfahān). The first four of these āvāzes (to which Bayāt-e Kord is sometimes added) are considered to have been derived from Šūrand the last from Homāyūn. Among all the dastgāhs and āvāzes Šūr is the most significant, both because of its scope and because it is the most familiar (Ḵāleqī, p. 129).

In the Azerbaijan tradition, which is very close to the Persian tradition in this respect, twelve dastgāhs (or principal maqāms) were recognized, seven of them essential (Rāst, Šūr, Segāh, Čahārgāh, Māhūr, Bayāt-e Šīrāz, Homāyūn), the rest less important (Šūštar, Bayāt-e Kord, Bayāt-e Qājār, Navā-Nīšāpūr, Rahāb). To these should be added about ten modes (moqāms) and fifteen subsidiary modes (šoʿbas; During, 1988, pp. 38-39; cf. pp. 193-98 for information from earlier periods).

Despite all the changes that Persian music has undergone (and despite internal modifications in the dastgāhs), the system of twelve dastgāhs and āvāzes has remained generally the same as when it was codified by the masters of the last century, in particular Mīrzā ʿAbd-Allāh (d. 1337/1918, q.v.). No new dastgāh or large gūša has been devised since that codification. When an āvāz or dastgāh has been further developed, it has almost always been through borrowing materials from other dastgāhs, rather than through invention, and the rare gūšas that have since been added to the traditional corpus (radīf) are only melodies or variations that present no novelty from a modal point of view. From this remarkable stability it can be deduced that the system has achieved “canonical” status in Persia (though perhaps less so in Azerbaijan), comparable to that of the twelve maqāms and twenty-four šoʿbas that prevailed between the 14th and 17th centuries; the breaking down and reassembling of that material produced the present system of dastgāhs.

 For a music samples:

GOSHEH

The short pieces (gūshehs) emphasize different parts of the scale and various tonal relationships. A recognizable musical character is established for each performance.

TAHRIR

A traditional Iranian singing style that has the same meaning as the European Tremolo. In other words, it is a song with a drop in note, and in that respect, similar vocalizations can be found in many folk music around the world.

DAR AMAD MAHOOR

Dastgāh-e Māhūr or Dastgaah-e Maahur (Persian: دستگاه ماهور) is one of the seven Dastgāhs of Persian Music (Classically, Persian Music is organized into seven Dastgāhs and five Āvāzes, however from a merely technical point of view, one can consider them as an ensemble of 12 Dastgāhs).

MAQAM

Persian maqam (Persian: مقام) is a notion in Persian classical music. Quoting Nooshin,

The distinction between gusheh and mode is rarely discussed in the literature, but is often implied in the terminology used. Of those who do discuss this (briefly), [Hormoz] Farhat suggests that the Persian maqām ('position') is equivalent to 'mode', and certainly prior to the development of the dastgāh system, this would have been the main local term signifying mode or melody-type (as still used in related traditions in the region. Indeed, until recently, some musicians still used 'maqām' to refer to individual 'dastgāh's.

According to Hormoz Farhat,

Before the development of the system of the twelve dastgāhs, traditional music was known under the genus of various maqāms. In Turkey and in the Arabic-speaking countries , the maqāmāt (Arabic plural for maqām) is still the basis of classical music. [...] In Persian music, more analogous to maqām is māye, a word with increasing usage signifying what is meant by a maqām elsewhere.[2]

Persian maqams have also been known in South Asia. The Sanskrit theorist Pundarika Vitthala noted the names of the Persian maqams in his sixteenth-century treatise Ragamanjari.

TAṢNIF (تصنیف)

A type of vocal composition in classical Persian music. The term, an Arabic loanword, originally referred to literary compositions and then later also specifically to literary-musical compositions, for which it is better known today.  There is disagreement as to what constitutes a taṣnif, due in part to the multiplicity of its forms and in part to variation in the usage of terms for different song types, both historical and contemporary.

Song in the late Qajar period (ca. 1875-1925) was of several categories: religious, folk, urban popular, aristocratic, and political. For instance, in addition to taṣnif, there were also soruds (anthem), nawḥas (religious song), and tarānas (folk and popular song).  The designation taṣnif has come to be regarded as a distinct genre of composed song associated with classical music, as found in aristocratic and in certain political and mystical circles.  The late Qajar taṣnifs may continue to be thought of as a form-type, even though later composers such as Mortażā Neydāwud and Moḥammad-ʿAli Amir Jāhed have expanded the range and scope of this classical taṣnif (Caron and Safvate, pp. 144-46; Tsuge, pp. 200-205). 

The classical taṣnif is a song composed usually in a melodic type (guša) of a modal system (dastgāh) on traditional love themes and metaphors, using classical poetic meters and form-types, for instance quatrains (robāʿi), lyrics (ḡazal), or stanzaic verse (mosammaṭ).  These taṣnifs are usually stanzaic and include a recurrent refrain thematically and rhythmically distinct from the verse.  Their form may be distinguished from that of rhythmic (żarbi) pieces and classical poetry in general in that the poetic text may have, in coordination with the musical theme, sectional divisions determined by line length, rhyme, and metric scheme.

According to Nur-Ali Borumand, stanzaic taṣnif is a song type having a verse and refrain (Borumand, interview, 25 December 1974), with both the words and music composed by one person.  Its melody is based on the repertoire of Persian classical music (radif; Mallāḥ, interview, 1975).  Its rhythm is slow and regular (Farhat, p. 34), and the poetry of the verse may be from a ḡazal by a classical master of Persian poetry such as Saʿdi and Ḥāfeẓ (Loṭfi, interview, 1975) or from the old music masters of the court (Sadeghi, class notes, 1969).  Unlike the poetic forms of ḡazal and qaṣida, taṣnif as poetry was originally intended to be composed with music (Karimi, class discussion, 1975).  ʿAli-Akbar Šeydā (d. 1906), ʿĀref Qazvini (d. 1934), and Amir-Jāhed (d. 1977), the three best-known taṣnif writers of this period, composed both poetry and music of their taṣnifs.  Other examples of this period do not adhere to this standard, such as those composed by Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Darviš Khan (d. 1926) and Mortażā Neydāwud (d. 1990).

There are a number of sources concerning taṣnifs of the Qajar period.  Clément Huart and A. Lemaire published Westernized musical arrangements of taṣnifs and taṣnif excerpts; Alexander Chodzko printed translations of 50 Persian songs mostly from the harem of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah; Vasilli Zhukovskiǐ, Jong-e tarānahā wa taṣnifhā-ye Qājār, and Ādāb-e āvāzhā wa ḏekr dar manābar contain Persian texts; and Fairchild’s work contains both texts and music.  Other works of and about the Qajar period, such as those by Yaḥyā Ārianpur and ʿAbd-Allāh Mostawfi, include smaller numbers of texts.

ʿAbd-ʿAllāh Dawāmi has stated that, during the late Qajar period, taṣnifs were in the hands of one family, the family of Ḥabib-Allāh Samāʿ Ḥożur, and that he learned taṣnifs from them (interview, 28 September 1976; Loṭfi, p. 13).  Samāʿ Ḥożur was a student of Moḥammed-Ṣādeq Khan, the head of the court musicians (Ḵāleqi, I, p. 135), and was a master in santur, tombak (goblet-shaped drum, also called dombak, żarb), and singing taṣnifs and metric tunes (Ṣafwat, p. 61).  Many of these taṣnifs have been preserved through Dawāmi, who, according to Ruḥ-Allāh Ḵāleqi, knew all of the old taṣnifs and was the “preserved tablet of old metric songs” (lawḥ-e maḥfuẓ-e naḡmahā-ye wazndār-e qadim; Ḵāleqi, I, pp. 366-67).  Dawāmi, in turn, passed on his taṣnifs to others, notably Nur-ʿAli Borumand and Moḥammed-Reżā Loṭfi.  According to Loṭfi (interview 31 May 1975) and Dawāmi, these old taṣnifs of the late Qajar period were performed only for the aristocracy.

Taṣnif composers of the late Qajar period are representatives of both traditional forms and of stylistic and thematic changes.  One of the developments in the Iranian poetic style of the 19th century was the simplification of language, designed to appeal to a new mass audience outside the circles of the court and aristocracy.  The taṣnif composers, ʿAli-Akbar Šeydā and Abu’l-Qāsem ʿĀref, both used language common to the people.  While Šeydā’s works were lyrical in their subject matter, ʿĀref composed both lyrical and topical taṣnifs, and was influenced, as were other poets and composers, by the events of the Constitutional Revolution (Badiʿi, pp. 81-103).   

After songwriters in the environment of the court, the most important taṣnif composer was ʿAli-Akbar Šeydā (ca. 1843-1906) whose taṣnifs are considered in Iran by classical musicians as the best examples of the classical taṣnif of the lyrical tradition.  He drew on both court (Dawāmi, interview, 28 September 1976) and popular tradition (Badiʿi, p. 92).  Borumand and Karimi felt that Šeydā’s works were the best examples of old taṣnif, in both poetry and music and in the relationship between the two.  Badiʿi states that the language of his taṣnifs was close to the language of the common people and for that reason was easy for them to grasp (Badiʿi, pp. 84-85;).   

During the period of the Constitutional Revolution (1905-11), taṣnif and tarāna played an important role in the process of struggle.  Many poets of this period wrote both in conventional poetic forms, particularly the ḡazal, and in songs.  They published the texts of taṣnifs and soruds in their journals and in separate song-sheets, as well as performing them or having them performed.  The taṣnifs were performed in revolutionary societies (anjoman), at informal gatherings, and in concert halls in the major cities, particularly in the theater of the Grand Hotel on Lālazār Street in Tehran (Caton, pp. 82-83, 90-91).

The most popular poet of this time, who also wrote taṣnifs, was Sayyed Ašraf-al-Din Ḥosayni Qazvini (1871-1934), publisher of, Nasim-e šemāl (1907-11), a literary paper containing both serious and satirical poems (Ārianpur, II, pp. 61-77; Ṣadr Hāšemi, IV, pp. 295-302). Second to him in popularity was Abu’l-Qāsem ʿĀref Qazvini, mainly known for his taṣnif composition, but who also composed ḡazals, some of which he himself sang in his musical performances.  It was in ʿĀref’s taṣnifs that Ṣeydā’s lyrical taṣnif joined with topical popular song and was used in the exhortative manner of the rest of the body of nationalistic, revolutionary poetry.  What is more, it is mainly in ʿĀref’s taṣnifs (e.g., “Hangām-e mey/“Az ḵun-e javānān-e waṭan,” and “Če šurhā”) that some of the major events following the granting of the Constitution in 1906 may be followed (Caton, pp. 83-86, 112-17; Qazvini, pp. 358-60, 382-85). ʿĀref was the most influential taṣnif composer and performer of the period of the Constitutional Revolution.  He remains a nationalist symbol to the Iranians, and as such his taṣnifs are venerated and performed as part of the continuing classical and national tradition of Persian music (Ārianpur, II, pp. 146-68, 349-61; Badiʿi, pp. 95-103; Ḥosayni Dehkordi, pp. 514-16). 

As both Šeydā and ʿĀref had done, Moḥammad-ʿAli Amir-Jāhed (1894-1977) composed both words and melody himself.  His numerous taṣnifs include both nationalistic and lyrical themes.  He accompanied himself on the tār (a string instrument) and taught his taṣnifs to others (Ḵān-ʿAli, p. 24).   Many of them, including “Amān az in del,” were recorded by the distinguished female vocalist Qamar-al-Moluk Waziri.  Borumand estimates (interview, 6 May 1975) that this taṣnif was composed around 1935.  Amir-Jāhed’s works are not considered by Persian musicians as having either the high qualities of those of Šeydā or the charisma of the ones by ʿĀref.  They do, however, include many performable taṣnifs that are also included in classical performances of the modal repertoire (radif).

During the period of Constitutional Revolution, a number of poets, such as Ṣādeq Khan Adib-al-Mamālek Farāhāni (1860-1917), Hāji Mirzā Yaḥyā Dawlatābādi (1864-1940), Moḥammad-Reżā Mirzāda ʿEšqi (1893-1924), and Moḥammad-Taqi Malek-al-Šoʿarāʾ Bahār (1886-1951), wrote nationalistic songs (see Machalski; Ārianpur, II, pp. 123-46, 271-74, 361-81; Panāhi, pp. 192-212; Badiʿi, pp. 109-13).  Bahār, an outstanding literary and political figure, wrote the lyrics to a number of taṣnifs, the most famous of which is the revolutionary song “Morḡ-e saḥar.”  The music was composed by Neydāwud, a master tār performer and teacher in the court music tradition (Badiʿi, pp. 112-13; Panāhi, pp. 206-11; Ḥosayni Dehkordi, pp. 10-13, 236-38).

Symbolism in classical taṣnif poetry resembles that of the classical ḡazal, using the same themes of the lover, beloved, wine, and springtime.  Borumand has stated that taṣnifs are based mainly on the theme of love, whether it is love for a person, for God, for music, or for the homeland.  Both Franciszek Machalski (p. 71) and Mojtaba Khoshzamir (p. 26) concur that the great majority of taṣnifs are lyrical, the rest being divided among topical, satirical, and other themes.  Ārianpur (II, p. 153) has compared the amatory taṣnif to the mystical ḡazals in its adoring emphasis on flowers, wine, beauty, and the unfaithfulness of the beloved.   Like the older taṣnifs, those of Šeydā also continue the tradition of love-oriented poetry using traditional symbols and metaphors.  The taṣnif was used as a format for writers like ʿĀref and Bahār to educate their audience politically.  They drew upon traditional poetic symbols and themes, sometimes altering them to suit their purposes, and made open propaganda in ways not at all in accordance with the tradition of veiled allusion.  Classical literature presents metaphors and abstractions in such a way that one is never sure, for example, if wine represents actual wine or serves as a symbol for something else.  In the taṣnifs this was true also.  In some taṣnifs, particularly those of ʿĀref, there also appeared more concrete images.  ʿĀref, in his political taṣnifs, left the world of veiled allusion and classical turn of phrase to address current issues and conditions directly. This directness of ʿĀref provides a contrast between the taṣnif and the ḡazal. 

Starting in the time of Reżā Shah Pahlavi (r. 1924-41), the composition of critical or satirical taṣnifs expressing individual views was suppressed in Iran, although Persians in other countries continued the tradition.  Types that were encouraged were nationalistic or instructional soruds and lyrical taṣnifs, although continuing experiments and influences from the music of other cultures and from the folk music tradition within Iran have changed some of the musical appearance of the taṣnif.

Since the taṣnif is a compositional form cultivated particularly by musicians associated with the court, it shares many of the characteristics both of classical poetry and of classical music, that is, the music of the radif or dastgāh system.  It has been placed, however, in a flexible category between popular and classical.  The taṣnifs that more closely approach the classical norms have become accepted by the classical musicians and included in their repertoire.  These taṣnifs can be performed separately or in groups or can be incorporated into a dastgāh performance.  Borumand has stated that the taṣnif is usually performed in a series from slow to fast; two to four taṣnifs are followed by a dancing tune (reng; Interview, 3 December 1974).

In the past, performance styles were solo-oriented and non-standardized (Tsuge, p. 194).  Traditionally speaking, the taṣnif was performed by a singer accompanied by a small ensemble, usually consisting of one or two melody instruments (e.g., tār and kamānča) and a drum (tombak or dāyera).  Although Šeydā, ʿĀref, and Amir-Jāhed all performed their own taṣnifs, only ʿĀref became known as a public performer.  Among the most famous of singers of Šeydā’s taṣnifs in former times was Jamāl Ṣafawi (Badiʿi, p. 83).  One of the earliest performers of ʿĀref’s taṣnifs was ʿAbd-Allāh Dawāmi (1891-1981).  Later singers learned taṣnifs from him with a view to preserving and reviving them.

In the 20th century, the performance of a modal system (dastgāh) evolved into a combination of improvised and non-improvised forms in the following order: piš-darāmad (preamble), čahār-meżrāb (rhythmic instrumental), āvāz (nonmetric vocal), taṣnif, and reng (Tsuge, pp. 192-95; Zonis, pp. 137-48).  With the nonmetric āvāz as the core of a dastgāh performance, metric pieces (čahār-meżrāb, żarbi, and taṣnif), which may be placed between some of the gušas (pieces) of the āvāz, add variety.  Both Gen’ichi Tsuge (p. 191) and Manoochehr Sadeghi (p. 165) have stated that the taṣnif changes the mood and creates motion and excitement that contrasts with the nonmetric rhythm of the āvāz. 

In 1955, Iranian radio began to present the Golhā programs (“Orkestr-e Golhā,” p. 26), aimed at illustrating the perennial thematic and aesthetic relationships between poetry and traditional music in Persian culture. A number of vocalists became identified with singing the old taṣnifs in this program.  For instance, Marżia, who began singing on the radio in 1948, rejuvenated public interest in the works of Šeydā by performing them in this program (Majalla-ye musiqi 6/3, 1957, p. 22).  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Banān (1911-1986), a prominent vocalist who began singing for Tehran Radio in 1942 (Mallāḥ, 1/11-12, p. 9), later on started performing in the Golhā programs, particularly the taṣnifs of ʿĀref. 

The taṣnif may also be sung outside of the dastgāh format.   Choice of taṣnif and performance style may vary according to whether the singer specializes in āvāz (vocal improvisation on the gušas of the radif) or taṣnif (Caron and Safvate, pp. 159-60).  Traditionally the distinction is made that an āvāz singer is able to perform the taḥrir (melisma) and a taṣnif singer has a strong sense of rhythm and often is an accomplished tombak (goblet-shaped drum) player as well (Caron and Safvate, pp. 15-60; Ḵāleqi, I, p. 357).

The performance of a taṣnif may vary according to the individual performer, the audience, the medium of performance, and whether it is live or recorded.  A performance for an intimate gathering of aristocrats in the Qajar court differs from a re-orchestrated version of the same piece for the radio program “Golhā-ye rangārang,” first broadcast in the 1950s.  Before the development of the modern concert, the classical taṣnif was sung within the environment of the court and aristocratic circles.  Performers were hired to be part of the retinue of princes and played and sang at private parties and celebrations and picnics, and within the private quarters (andarun) of the family. 

The classical taṣnifs draw on formal elements that are found in folk, urban, popular, and classical poetry.  They are difficult to place in any one category due to their variety and the extent to which classical poetry was influenced by folk elements during the time of composition.  Persian musicians and musicologists have not known exactly where to place the taṣnif in importance or in quality or genre.  There has been a tendency to group taṣnif with tarāna and sorud into one category as “song.”  Since the quality and style of taṣnif varies, as does its melodic and poetic similarity to the radif, it is understandable that attitudes would be mixed.  Some musicians, such as Borumand, have felt that the taṣnif is an important form and that there are many taṣnifs of high quality, particularly those composed by Šeydā and ʿĀref (Caton, p. 33).

Some of the late Qajar taṣnifs form a part of the contemporary classical repertoire.  These and later taṣnifs may be sung as part of a dastgāh performance or be performed in a context of similar types of taṣnifs.  Of the classical taṣnifs, there is a consensus of those that would be included in a dastgāh performance.  These are the works of  Šeydā, ‘Āref, and other composers of classical taṣnif, particularly Amir-Jāhed.  Šeydā, ʿĀref, and Amir-Jāhed represent the ideal in taṣnif composition, since they composed both lyrics and music themselves and also performed them (ʿĀref for a public audience).  Most of these taṣnifs were composed before 1925 (the conclusion of the Qajar era). 

These standard, accepted, classical taṣnifs went through periodic revivals in popularity, underwent new arrangements, and were presented in different ways.  In the late 1970s, particularly, the classical musicians, in their efforts to reactivate traditional music, made considerable efforts to learn additional taṣnifs from old masters or from recordings in order to be able to re-present and re-record them.  The classical taṣnif continues to be an enduring part of the classical tradition and has found its place with the other composed forms that are now part of a dastgāh performance.

For a music sample, seeTasnif (balākeš) – Dastgāh šur
Tasnif-e Mobtalā

OTHER TERMS

Shahed Note (Tonic Note)
It is the note that appears more than any other notes and is the center of the melody.
 

Stop Note
After playing a Shahid note in a Gusheh you can end on this note as well as the Shahid note. Shahid and Stop can be the same note as in Mahour Do, Gosheh Delkash (Shahid & Stop are Sol) or they can be different notes as in Mahour Do, Gousheh Shekasteh (Shahed is Sol and Stop is Mi Koron)
 

Forms in Persian Music
Generally, form in music refers to the shape and the skeleton of the musical piece. There are two general forms in Persian music: First, the forms that exist in the Radif, such as Daraumad, Avaz, Kereshmeh, Bastehnegar, Charmezrab, Renge, Masnavi, and so forth. Second, the forms that do not exist in the Radif like Peeshdaramad and Tasneef. Except Daramad which is the introducer of the main mode in each Dastgah, all of the existing forms in Persian music are performable in other Dastgahs and Gushes.
 

A. The Existing Forms In The Radif
1. Daramad, it denotes beginning or appearing. Daramad introduces the main mode of each Dastgah. The form of Daramad can be though of vocal form too.
2. Avaz: is the main part of each Dastgah and is a non-rhythmic form.
3. Kereshmeh: is a rhythmic form whose rhythmic cycle is twelve.
4. Bastenegar: is also a rhythmic form which has a three-beat cycle (3/8, 3/16,…).
5. Charmezrab: has the fastest rhythm in the Radif. It can have various rhythmic cycles, such as 6/8, 6/16, 4/4, 2/4 or _.
6. Reng: is a dance-like piece marking the end of the performance. Its rhythmic cycle is usually 6/8.
 

B. The Forms that do not exist in the Radif
1. Peeshdaramad (prelude) usually performed in the beginning of the performance. It is a slow rhythmic piece which comes before Daramad in each Dastgah. These rhythmic forms usually have 2/4, _, 4/4, 6/4 rhythmic cycles. Darvish Khan and Mokhtari played a vital role in developing and promoting this rhythmic form.
2. Tasneef is a kind of music, which is accompanied with poems. Therefore, the presence of a vocalist is necessary in performing a Tasneef. Usually, Tasneef has a part known as overture and some other portions which can be only instrumental or partially instrumental and vocal. In terms of rhythm, Tasneef can have the form of Renge.

Improvisation
Improvisation is a kind of art in which the performer in accordance with his/her emotional mod uses his/her musical knowledge which he/she has gained through many years of repletion and practice under the supervision of the master. It should be mentioned that the ultimate goal of memorizing and mastering the Radif is to make the musician able to improvise
 

Modulation
Modulation is the art of changing the initial mode, going to different modes, and returning to the original mode. This mastery cannot be achieved unless the musician has perfectly learned the different Radifs and other musical pieces and compositions.

Scale’s note name in Persian music
A series of successive sounds or notes located between two notes one of which is the beginning and the other is the end of the scale. The numbers of the existing notes in each scale vary from country to country. For instance, in Chinese music, each scale has five notes. Therefore, the six notes is the repetition of the first note. In Jazz music each scale has six notes. It is to say that usually musical scales in most music contain seven notes and the eight notes is the repetition of the first note. Each note of any musical scale is called “degree”. The first degree in each scale defines the name of that scale. The Persian names of the different degrees of the eight-note scale (seven notes and 8th is a Octeve) are, Pardih, Ru Pardih, Miyani, Zir Namayan, Namayan, Ru-Namamyan, Mahsoos, and Hingum.